Thematic Comparison | Frost at Midnight and Dejection: An Ode | S.T. Coleridge

The poem “Frost at Midnight” was written in the year 1798 while “Dejection: an Ode” was written in 1802. These two poems by S.T. Coleridge portray two different states of the poet’s mind and reflect different experiences he had at different stages of his life.

“Frost at Midnight” speaks about Coleridge’s newfound passion in the natural world and his longing for his son Hartley to grow up in a natural environment. The poem presents a beautiful image of the poet’s mind in the form of a chain of thoughts. The poem is set in the midst of a frosty night when the poet is sitting silently in his cottage musing upon his relentless thoughts.

While the frost quietly spreads over the landscape the occasional screeching of the owl is the only sound disturbing the silence of the night. Every person living in the poet’s cottage is asleep, so are all the villagers. The hills, woods and the sea are silent and still. The poet is sitting beside his infant son Hartley sleeping peacefully in his cradle. The poet finds the silence and the stillness of the night nearly disturbing until he discovers the low blue flame flickering in the fireplace, the only other moving thing besides him. The poet finds companionship in the flame and slowly his thoughts begin to wander.

“Frost at Midnight was written when Coleridge described his life at Christ Hospital Grammar School to his friend Thomas Poole. The poet remembers his childhood and his days in school. He used to look outside through the bars of the window to gaze upon a ‘fluttering stranger’ a bird, a butterfly or any such winged creature which captures a child’s attention. Then with this fluttering stranger his mind would fly to the fair and he could hear the tolling of the church bell, a sound which reminds him of things to come. Coleridge’s remembrance of the past presents before the readers a beautiful image of a child’s mind which wanders away from his book and his daydreams gradually make him sleepy allowing him to continue with his reverie. The poet uses the word ‘swimming’ to show the child losing interest, attention and focus over his textbook such that it appears to be floating before his eyes. Coleridge remembers himself gazing out of the door hoping to see a familiar face- a townsman, an aunt or his sister to pass by.

The later part of the poem reflects Coleridge’s newfound interest in the beauty of nature which is a result of the detailed description of the Lake District presented to him by William Wordsworth. Coleridge addresses Hartley his son who is asleep and whose gentle breathing can be heard in the quiet of the night. Coleridge laments that he did not have the opportunity to grow up amidst nature.  He says that growing up amongst the dim cloisters of London the only beautiful things he saw are the sky and the stars. But he wants his son to grow up in the lap of nature. Coleridge views nature as a ‘great universal teacher’. He feels awed and inspired amidst nature. He wants his son to grow up in a nature environment away from the city and learn new and different things. This poem strongly emphasizes on Coleridge’s belief in nature as a teaching, healing and inspiring power.

“Dejection: An Ode” presents a contrast to Coleridge’s belief in nature’s power of inspiration as he shows in “Frost at Midnight”. This poem was written by Coleridge when he was suffering from a deep emotional depression and lack of imaginative and creative inspiration. The poem mainly deals with the theme of death of imagination and reflects Coleridge’s new philosophy about nature and its ability to inspire.

“Dejection: An Ode” describes the poet’s inability to find inspiration in nature. In this poem he addresses Sarah Hutchinson, the lady whom he loved but could not marry. Coleridge begins the poem by referring to the “Ballad of Sir Patrick Spence”. The poet of the ballad predicts a storm observing the new moon in the sky which has appeared along with the outline of the old moon visible around it. Coleridge says that he sees a similar moon in the sky and predicts a storm. But even as the rain starts pouring and the wind starts to blow, the poet fails to find it awe inspiring as he did before. Instead he only feels a dull pain in his heart. This shows that the poet can still derive knowledge from natural phenomena but he fails to find any kind of inspiration from them. The poet describes his inability to imagine as “grief without pang” which is like a “void”. The dull pain which he feels is constant and he cannot find any means of relieving himself of his emotions. He addresses his lady and says that no matter how much he looks into nature he fails to feel its beauty.

However Coleridge finally comes to a realization. He says – “I may not hope from outward forms to win/ The passions of life whose fountains are within”. These lines mark Coleridge’s new philosophy. He realizes that inspiration lies not in nature but in the human mind. If the mind is capable of seeing nature as an inspiration only then nature can inspire. It depends completely upon the imaginative capacity of the individual. Nature remains unchanging regardless of human life. It is an open book for the mind to interpret. For this reason nature has different effects on different people. It deeply affects certain minds while fails to touch others.

Coleridge finds that it is joy within his heart that allows him to find joy in nature. Nature returns to us only what we give to it. A sad heart will thus only gain sorrow from nature. Coleridge reminisces of the time when his heart was full of joy and it helped him to fight distress. But with growing depression his power of imagination has diminished. Coleridge refers to his negative thoughts as “viper” to emphasize the poisonous nature of their impact upon his life. The depression in his mind leads him to see violence and sorrow in nature. He feels that the wind blowing outside is carrying tragic sounds and groans of pain. He is unable to sleep. But he wishes that sleep may visit his lady with “wings of healing”. Although he cannot feel any joy within himself he wishes his lady all the joy in the world.

The two poems show certain similarities. They are both conversation poems – the first addressing his son Hartley and the second addressing his lady love Sarah Hutchinson. Coleridge’s attitude towards these people is also quite similar. He wishes his son to grow up amidst nature as he understands the importance of nature in a person’s life which he was deprived of. Similarly he wishes Sarah all the joy the world can provide while he himself could not find it.

The major difference between “Frost at Midnight” and “Dejection: An Ode” is Coleridge’s attitude towards nature. “Frost at Midnight” shows his complete faith upon nature as a teacher, healer and inspirer. But after facing a deep mental depression he realizes that it is the power of imagination that allows nature to heal and inspire. “Frost at Midnight” shows a reflection of the Romantic ideals about nature whereas “Dejection: An ode” shows a break from the tradition where Coleridge finds his new philosophy which differs completely from the established Romantic notions.  

The Writing Style of Francis Bacon

Francis Bacon is often regarded as the ‘Father of English essays’. But it is often argued whether his essays correspond to the conventional definition of the term. This is because Bacon’s essays have a certain distinctive characteristics which make us question the classification of their genre.

The most notable feature of Bacon’s essay is his aphoristic style. Aphorisms are straightforward statements that state a truth. Bacon in his essays writes in an aphoristic style making general statements. For example, in his essay “Of studies" Bacon states that studies have three purposes - to delight, for ornament and for ability. Again he says that there are different kinds of books - some are to be perused lightly, others to be digested and so on. Bacon merely states these facts almost as if they are established truths. He does not provide his personal opinion or give any examples as to which books are to be read lightly or which are to be digested. This aphoristic style in Bacon’s writing leaves the reader to his own interpretations. Bacon uses the aphoristic style to enable the reader's active participation allowing him to interpret and add to the meaning of his statements. This is opposed to the magisterial style where the entire information is provided making the reader lazy and passive.

Another important feature of Bacon’s essays is his impersonality. Bacon’s personal choices and opinions are not reflected through his writings. His impersonality is aided by his aphoristic style. By providing the reader with statements of truth Bacon saves himself from revealing his true personality. He rarely exemplifies his arguments and when he does the examples are usually drawn from history, such as the example of Julius Caesar and Brutus in the essay “Of Friendship”, which does not require his personal opinion. Bacon’s personality is detached from his essays.

Bacon’s essays also display a few other features. His essays are usually short, sometimes shorter than what the conventional definition of essay suggests. They often lack coherence. This is mainly because most of his essays are not divided into paragraphs and it is difficult for the reader to grasp a sudden change from one idea to another. His essays are observational rather than reflective. His style is very formal.

The various features of Bacon’s essays therefore make it difficult to place his writings under the genre of essay. But these features also do not suggest otherwise. Thus Bacon’s works are classified as essays. In conclusion it can be said that the essays of Francis Bacon possess distinctive features which have served to preserve his works through the ages. His essays are studied at present not for their content but for their style.

Mimetic Tradition in Classical Western Literary Criticism

The word 'mimesis' means to imitate. As a critical and philosophical term mimesis may carry several meanings such as representation, imitation, and mimicry, the act of resembling, the act of expression and the presentation of the self. Mimesis as criteria of literary criticism refers to interpreting a text in relation to a particular literary or cultural model. The tradition of mimetic criticism begins with Plato.

In ancient Greece the idea of mimesis referred to a reflection of the ideal world in the physical. Plato wrote about the concept of mimesis in his famous work The Republic where he said that the physical world is merely a reflection or imitation of an ‘ideal’ world. Plato divides the world into – the world of ideals and the world of sense-perception. Reality exists in the form of ideals and is perceived through the senses in the world of appearances. Plato exemplifies this concept with the help of three beds- one the ideal of a ‘bed’; second, the bed made by a carpenter and third the bed painted by the artist. The artist imitates the carpenter who in turn imitates the ideal world. Thus the painting is an imitation of an imitation. The work of an artist is twice removed from reality. Plato likens poets to painters and thus calls them liars.  Plato calls poetry the art of divine madness. The artists and orators, according to Plato, persuade their audience by rhetoric and not by speaking the truth.

Plato’s idea is further discussed by his disciple Aristotle in his work Poetics which is a defence of poetry against Plato’s accusations. Aristotle mentions in Poetics that epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, pipe-playing and lyre-playing are all different modes of imitation. However they differ from each other in three ways- first, the means of imitation, second the object to be imitated and third, the manner of imitation. A poet imitates actions which are performed by either a good person or a bad person i.e. a poet imitates virtues and vices, the primary distinction of the diversity of human temperaments. The persons that a poet imitates must be either of a higher level than the common people, or of a lower level or of the same level. If the means and object for imitation are the same the manner of imitation may differ in three ways. First, one may switch between narration and assuming character. Secondly, one may remain the same without any change or thirdly, the whole story may be represented dramatically as if the imitator is actually performing those actions.

 Aristotle regards humans as imitative beings. Humans are the most imitative creatures in the world which is an advantage they enjoy over other beings. The process of learning in human life begins with imitation. Moreover imitation is not only a part of human nature but they also find delight in works of imitation. Aristotle says that although some objects are painful to see in real life a realistic representation of those objects in the form of art provides pleasure. The natural tendency of imitation in humans along with the sense of melody and rhythm results in the creation of poetry.

The mimesis theory is reflected in Aristotle’s famous definition of tragedy where he states that tragedy is the ‘imitation of an action’ that is serious, has a magnitude and is complete in it. It is written in a pleasurable language and the action progresses in a dramatic form involving incidents which arouse the emotions of pity and fear in the audience and ultimately leads to a catharsis of those emotions. Aristotle differentiates a comedy from a tragedy by saying that comedy is the imitation of people worse than the average while a tragedy is the imitation of persons above the ordinary. According to Aristotle a poet’s function is to describe what may have happened or should have happened, unlike a historian whose function is to describe what has already happened. In this manner poetry is a form of creation and thus the poet is a creator and not a liar as said by Plato.

Philip Sidney in his essay An Apology for Poetry reiterates the classical definition and says that poetry is the art of imitation, like a representation or a counterfeit. It is a speaking picture whose aim is to teach and delight. Sidney classifies poetry into three types. First is religious poetry that imitates the incredible excellence of God. Secondly poetry that deals with philosophical matters either moral or astronomical. The third type of poetry according to Sidney is that which imitates for the sole purpose of teaching and delighting by telling not what has been or shall be but which may be or should be. Thus he echoes Aristotle’s view on a poet’s function carrying forward the mimetic tradition in classical western literary criticism. Sidney also adds that a poet is one who is capable of feigning images of virtue and vices in a didactic yet entertaining manner.

The mimetic tradition continues in Samuel Johnson’s Preface to Shakespeare, the famous critique of the works of William Shakespeare. Johnson measures Shakespeare’s genius in his ability to imitate nature. Johnson regards Shakespeare as the poet of nature who holds up a faithful mirror of life and its manners to his readers. The plays of Shakespeare portray the true nature of human beings and the actions of his characters can scarcely be called fictional.  Shakespeare’s characters are never extraordinary; they speak and act under the influence of common human passions. Johnson says that Shakespeare does not have any heroes. His characters are merely men who act and speak in the same manner as the reader himself would act or speak if he faced a similar situation. His characters are ordinary and universal. The audience can identify themselves with the characters. According to Johnson, “imitations produce pleasure or pain, not because they are mistaken for realities, but because they bring realities to mind”. Shakespeare’s tragedies are impactful because they imitate situations which may not be real but which are capable of bringing realities to the mind. According to Johnson the greatest praise of Shakespeare is that his drama is a mirror of life.

In conclusion it can be said that the concept of mimesis in western literary criticism evolved through the works of various critics. The tradition began with Plato who regarded the physical world as an imitation of the ‘ideal’ and thus regarded all imitations of the physical world as false. Aristotle defended this stance by justifying that the poet speculates events which is a creative process in itself and hence proved that they are not liars. The tradition continued down the ages up to the eighteenth century as seen in the works of critics such as Sidney and Johnson. Mimesis is considered as an important concept in the world of literary criticism even today. 

The Lake Isle of Innisfree | W.B. Yeats | Summary and Analysis

The Lake Isle of Innisfree is a poem by W.B. Yeats. The poem depicts the longing of the poet to escape his life in the city and find peace and solace in the lap of nature. The poet wants to go to Innisfree which is an uninhibited island in Ireland where the poet spent his childhood. He wants to build a small cabin for himself in the island and grow beans and raise honeybees. He wants a quiet and tranquil life which is contrary to the busy life of the cities. The poem is set in the countryside. The poet makes use of imagery to express his feelings and emotions. The images in the poem are both visual and auditory.

In the first stanza, the poet states his resolution that he would go to Innisfree and lead a solitary life in the island. He would make a small cabin for himself and plant beans and raise honeybees. He wants an escape from the busy life in the city. In the second stanza, the poet describes the natural beauty of Innisfree. He describes the morning mist or fog to be a veil where peace would come dropping like dew drops. The veil of the morning also presents an image of the unspoiled beauty of a bride. The poet describes the midnights of Innisfree as glimmering, which implies a golden glowing starlit sky. The noon is described by the poet to have a purple glow. These images present a contrast of colours which aptly describe the unspoiled natural beauty of Innisfree. In the third stanza the poet repeats his resolution to go to Innisfree. He seems to have woken up from a daydream and suddenly realizes the reality of his surroundings. The poet says that he can hear the sounds of the lapping waters of the lake against the shore of Innisfree even while standing on the grey pavements of the city. The memories of the free life that he lived in Ireland are deeply ingrained in his heart. Therefore the poet desires to leave behind the restrictive life of the city and go back to Innisfree and life his life in peace.

The themes that we come across in the poem include a longing for an ideal pastoral island, escape from city life, trying to go back to the past and the idea of individuality and independence. The rhyme scheme of the poem is abab. The poet also makes use of alliteration and assonance in the poem. The tone of the poem is serene, thoughtful and reflective. The poem depicts the balance and harmony of nature.