Orientation of Critical Theories | M.H. Abrams | Summary and Analysis

The essay ‘Orientation of Critical Theories’ is the first chapter of the book The Mirror and the Lamp by M.H. Abrams. In the book Abrams speaks about the two ways in which literature or literary theories try to interpret the human mind – first the mind as a mirror that reflects the external objects and second as a lamp that throws light at the objects it sees. The first approach is related to the mimetic theories of criticism and the second approach is related to the romantic ideal of the power of the mind to interpret what it sees. In this essay Abrams speaks about how different critical theories tend to display an orientation towards a particular element of a work of art by dividing these theories based upon their orientations.

This essay is divided by Abrams into five parts. The first part deals with the coordinates of art criticism. Abrams says that any critical theory consists of four elements with the help of which they comprehend art. The first element is the work of art and the second element is the artist. The third element is the source of the work, the objects or situations that the work describes or reflects or has some relation to. This is commonly referred to as ‘nature’ but Abrams uses the more inclusive term ‘universe’. The fourth element is the audience. Abrams arranges these four elements in a triangular diagram with the work of art at the centre and the universe, audience and the artist as the three coordinates. He says that any critical theory while dealing with all the four elements shows a significant orientation towards only one of these elements and judges the value of the work by focusing on one element as its principal criteria. Thus all critical theories can be divided into four broad categories depending upon their orientation towards the elements. The first category deals with the importance of the universe in the work of art. The second category deals with the influence of the work on its audience. The third orients towards the artist’s role in the process of creation of the work of art and the fourth category deals with the work as a singular entity. Abrams however says that the four elements vary according to the theories in which they appear.

The second part of the essay deals with mimetic theories. The critical theories that deal with mimesis are oriented towards the universe and its role in the work of art. This theory first appeared in Plato’s Republic. Plato’s theory of mimesis operates upon three categories – the ideal world, the physical world and the world of art. This theory holds that the physical world is an imitation of the Ideal world and art is an imitation of the physical world. Thus art is twice removed from reality. This idea is famously explained by Socrates in the tenth book of the Republic where he says that there are three beds – one the idea of the bed, second a physical bed made by the carpenter who imitates the ideal bed and the third is the bed painted by the artist. The bed of the artist is twice removed from the idea of the bed. Thus according to this theory all works of judged on the basis of their relation to Ideas. Since ideas are considered true and beautiful the distance of art from ideas emphasizes its distance from beauty and truth.

Aristotle’s Poetics is the next great work of criticism with a mimetic orientation. Aristotle defines poetry as imitation. He also distinguishes between different kinds of imitation based on the objects imitated, the manner of imitation, and the medium of imitation. With the help of these distinctions Aristotle is able to separate poetry from other art forms and then make distinctions between different kinds of poetry - epic, drama, tragedy and comedy. Similarly while focusing on tragedy Aristotle breaks it into distinct individual parts - plot, characters, thought, temperament, diction etc. - which constitute the whole. Aristotle's criticism thus not only concerns about art as art but also poetry as poetry, and each kind of poetry according to its individual characteristics. Thus it is seen that Aristotle's criticism also displays a slight orientation towards the work itself. Another characteristic feature of Poetics is that it evaluates art or specifically tragedy based on its effect upon the audience. Thus Aristotle's criticism is very flexible and cannot be easily classified into one form of orientation. Nevertheless the mimetic orientation remains the most prominent in Aristotle's criticism. It is however important to note that Aristotle's criticism does not pay much attention to the role of the poet's individual feelings or emotions in the creation of a work of art. In Poetics the poet appears only to be advised about how plot is to be constructed and how diction is to be chosen. Plato on the other hand considers the poet from the political point of view.

In the third part of the essay Abrams speaks about the theories that display an orientation towards the relationship of the work of art to its audience. Abrams terms these theories as pragmatic theories. Pragmatic theories view the arts as a means of achieving an end and judges the value of art based upon its success in achieving that end. For pragmatic critics poetry is a means to achieve certain responses from its readers. Sir Philip Sidney's ‘An Apology for Poetry’ is the first text that displays pragmatic criticism. According to Sidney the purpose of poetry is to teach and delight. Sidney judges the value of poetry by analyzing its effect upon its audience. He says that poets are different from historians because they communicate what may be or should be rather than what has been or shall be. Sidney raises the poet above philosophers and historians because it is only the poet who is the most successful in communicating with his audience. This is because he combines the fact of the historian and the morals of the philosopher and disguises it in a form that not only teaches but also delights.

The classical theory of rhetoric can be viewed as the origin of pragmatic theories as rhetoric is universally regarded as a powerful instrument of persuasion among an audience. Horace discusses this theory in his work Ars Poetica. Horace advises poets to write poetry with the aim to blend usefulness with pleasure. To teach, to please and to move are the three aesthetic effects to be achieved upon a reader. Pragmatic criticism is mostly concerned with formulating rules, guidelines and methods for achieving the desired effects upon the audience. The rules are often derived from the qualities present in classical literary works which have stood the test of time or from an understanding of psychology. These rules help the artist in the process of creation and the critic in the process of evaluation. Most eighteenth century critics believed in the strength of these rules. Therefore describing and demonstrating rules and guidelines became a popular trend in the critical texts of that time. Richard Hurd's ' Dissertation of the idea of universal poetry ' is another critical text concerning pragmatic criticism. According to Hurd universal poetry is the art whose purpose is to provide the maximum amount of pleasure possible. In order to achieve this effect Hurd proposes three properties - figurative language, fiction and versification. According to Hurd, since the aim of poetry is to gratify the mind of the reader, knowledge of the mind is important while establishing these rules.

Johnson’s "Preface to Shakespeare" is one of the most important texts dealing with pragmatic criticism. Johnson combines the mimetic criteria of evaluation with the aesthetic effects upon the audience in order to judge works of art. Johnson says that Shakespeare holds before his readers a faithful mirror of manner and life. But Johnson also states that the aim of poetry is to instruct as well as please. Therefore the fact that Shakespeare has survived the test of time as a poet whose works are read for little reason other than pleasure is proof that a work of art that truly imitates nature will continue to please its audience for a long time. Shakespeare's ability to hold up a mirror of life to his audience is the major criteria upon which Johnson judges the effect of his works on the audience. Abrams notes that the pragmatic orientation has been the principal aesthetic attitude of western criticism beginning from Horace up to the eighteenth century. However with the development of science and increased knowledge of psychology particularly after the influence of the works of Hobbes and Locke in the seventeen century, the poet and his mental capacities gradually became the focal point of criticism and the orientation of critical theories turned from the audience to the artist.

The fourth part of the essay deals with the critical theories oriented towards the relation between the work and the artist which Abrams calls the expressive theory of art. The expressive orientation is found in the works of Longinus in his discussions of the sublime which according to Longinus has its sources in the poet's thoughts and emotions. However Abrams considers the year 1800 marked by the publication of Wordsworth's Preface to the Lyrical Ballads as the date when the expressive orientation begins to surface in English literary criticism. The expressive theories are a product of the Romantic Movement which emphasized on the power of the poet's mind. According to the expressive theory a work of art is an external manifestation of internal thoughts and feelings. The creative process is a result of the impulses of feeling combined with the poet's thoughts and perceptions which is the primary source of his works. The poet also converts aspects of the external world into poetry with the help of his mind. The poet’s mind therefore is the central point of attention in an expressive theory. The expressive theories evaluate poetry by trying to figure out whether the diction and figures of speech are a natural outcome of the poet's emotions or a deliberate effort. The expressive theory tries to answer the questions of sincerity and authenticity of poetry along with the poem's correspondence to the actual feeling and state of the poet's mind.  The work of art is no longer viewed as a mirror of the universe but as an insight to the poet's mind.

In the fifth and last part of the essay Abrams discusses the objective theories of criticism which isolate a work of art and evaluate it as an independent entity. The orientation of objective theories is thus towards the work of art alone irrespective of its source, artist or audience. One of the early attempts at objective criticism is seen in Aristotle's Poetics. Aristotle tries to analyze tragedy by considering it as an individual whole consisting of parts such as plot and characters. The objective orientation begins to emerge significantly in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Some critics tried to understand a poem as a 'heterocosm' i.e. a whole, independent world complete in itself. This aim of critics to consider a work or poem as a singular element without any external reference is termed by historians as ' art for art's sake'.

Thus it is seen that Abrams divides critical theories into four categories based upon their orientation - first the mimetic theories which orient towards the universe, secondly the pragmatic theories concerning the audience, thirdly the expressive theories focusing on the artist and finally the objective theories revolving around the work of art itself. However towards the end of the essay Abrams returns to Romanticism and its expressive theories. This is because it is during the Romantic period that the critical theories begin to view the mind of the poet not as a mirror of nature but as a 'lamp' which sheds light on its own creation. Abrams' return to Romanticism justifies the purpose of his book where he tries to explain the two ways in which a poet's mind is interpreted- as a mirror and as a lamp.

Thematic Comparison | Frost at Midnight and Dejection: An Ode | S.T. Coleridge

The poem “Frost at Midnight” was written in the year 1798 while “Dejection: an Ode” was written in 1802. These two poems by S.T. Coleridge portray two different states of the poet’s mind and reflect different experiences he had at different stages of his life.

“Frost at Midnight” speaks about Coleridge’s newfound passion in the natural world and his longing for his son Hartley to grow up in a natural environment. The poem presents a beautiful image of the poet’s mind in the form of a chain of thoughts. The poem is set in the midst of a frosty night when the poet is sitting silently in his cottage musing upon his relentless thoughts.

While the frost quietly spreads over the landscape the occasional screeching of the owl is the only sound disturbing the silence of the night. Every person living in the poet’s cottage is asleep, so are all the villagers. The hills, woods and the sea are silent and still. The poet is sitting beside his infant son Hartley sleeping peacefully in his cradle. The poet finds the silence and the stillness of the night nearly disturbing until he discovers the low blue flame flickering in the fireplace, the only other moving thing besides him. The poet finds companionship in the flame and slowly his thoughts begin to wander.

“Frost at Midnight was written when Coleridge described his life at Christ Hospital Grammar School to his friend Thomas Poole. The poet remembers his childhood and his days in school. He used to look outside through the bars of the window to gaze upon a ‘fluttering stranger’ a bird, a butterfly or any such winged creature which captures a child’s attention. Then with this fluttering stranger his mind would fly to the fair and he could hear the tolling of the church bell, a sound which reminds him of things to come. Coleridge’s remembrance of the past presents before the readers a beautiful image of a child’s mind which wanders away from his book and his daydreams gradually make him sleepy allowing him to continue with his reverie. The poet uses the word ‘swimming’ to show the child losing interest, attention and focus over his textbook such that it appears to be floating before his eyes. Coleridge remembers himself gazing out of the door hoping to see a familiar face- a townsman, an aunt or his sister to pass by.

The later part of the poem reflects Coleridge’s newfound interest in the beauty of nature which is a result of the detailed description of the Lake District presented to him by William Wordsworth. Coleridge addresses Hartley his son who is asleep and whose gentle breathing can be heard in the quiet of the night. Coleridge laments that he did not have the opportunity to grow up amidst nature.  He says that growing up amongst the dim cloisters of London the only beautiful things he saw are the sky and the stars. But he wants his son to grow up in the lap of nature. Coleridge views nature as a ‘great universal teacher’. He feels awed and inspired amidst nature. He wants his son to grow up in a nature environment away from the city and learn new and different things. This poem strongly emphasizes on Coleridge’s belief in nature as a teaching, healing and inspiring power.

“Dejection: An Ode” presents a contrast to Coleridge’s belief in nature’s power of inspiration as he shows in “Frost at Midnight”. This poem was written by Coleridge when he was suffering from a deep emotional depression and lack of imaginative and creative inspiration. The poem mainly deals with the theme of death of imagination and reflects Coleridge’s new philosophy about nature and its ability to inspire.

“Dejection: An Ode” describes the poet’s inability to find inspiration in nature. In this poem he addresses Sarah Hutchinson, the lady whom he loved but could not marry. Coleridge begins the poem by referring to the “Ballad of Sir Patrick Spence”. The poet of the ballad predicts a storm observing the new moon in the sky which has appeared along with the outline of the old moon visible around it. Coleridge says that he sees a similar moon in the sky and predicts a storm. But even as the rain starts pouring and the wind starts to blow, the poet fails to find it awe inspiring as he did before. Instead he only feels a dull pain in his heart. This shows that the poet can still derive knowledge from natural phenomena but he fails to find any kind of inspiration from them. The poet describes his inability to imagine as “grief without pang” which is like a “void”. The dull pain which he feels is constant and he cannot find any means of relieving himself of his emotions. He addresses his lady and says that no matter how much he looks into nature he fails to feel its beauty.

However Coleridge finally comes to a realization. He says – “I may not hope from outward forms to win/ The passions of life whose fountains are within”. These lines mark Coleridge’s new philosophy. He realizes that inspiration lies not in nature but in the human mind. If the mind is capable of seeing nature as an inspiration only then nature can inspire. It depends completely upon the imaginative capacity of the individual. Nature remains unchanging regardless of human life. It is an open book for the mind to interpret. For this reason nature has different effects on different people. It deeply affects certain minds while fails to touch others.

Coleridge finds that it is joy within his heart that allows him to find joy in nature. Nature returns to us only what we give to it. A sad heart will thus only gain sorrow from nature. Coleridge reminisces of the time when his heart was full of joy and it helped him to fight distress. But with growing depression his power of imagination has diminished. Coleridge refers to his negative thoughts as “viper” to emphasize the poisonous nature of their impact upon his life. The depression in his mind leads him to see violence and sorrow in nature. He feels that the wind blowing outside is carrying tragic sounds and groans of pain. He is unable to sleep. But he wishes that sleep may visit his lady with “wings of healing”. Although he cannot feel any joy within himself he wishes his lady all the joy in the world.

The two poems show certain similarities. They are both conversation poems – the first addressing his son Hartley and the second addressing his lady love Sarah Hutchinson. Coleridge’s attitude towards these people is also quite similar. He wishes his son to grow up amidst nature as he understands the importance of nature in a person’s life which he was deprived of. Similarly he wishes Sarah all the joy the world can provide while he himself could not find it.

The major difference between “Frost at Midnight” and “Dejection: An Ode” is Coleridge’s attitude towards nature. “Frost at Midnight” shows his complete faith upon nature as a teacher, healer and inspirer. But after facing a deep mental depression he realizes that it is the power of imagination that allows nature to heal and inspire. “Frost at Midnight” shows a reflection of the Romantic ideals about nature whereas “Dejection: An ode” shows a break from the tradition where Coleridge finds his new philosophy which differs completely from the established Romantic notions.  

The Writing Style of Francis Bacon

Francis Bacon is often regarded as the ‘Father of English essays’. But it is often argued whether his essays correspond to the conventional definition of the term. This is because Bacon’s essays have a certain distinctive characteristics which make us question the classification of their genre.

The most notable feature of Bacon’s essay is his aphoristic style. Aphorisms are straightforward statements that state a truth. Bacon in his essays writes in an aphoristic style making general statements. For example, in his essay “Of studies" Bacon states that studies have three purposes - to delight, for ornament and for ability. Again he says that there are different kinds of books - some are to be perused lightly, others to be digested and so on. Bacon merely states these facts almost as if they are established truths. He does not provide his personal opinion or give any examples as to which books are to be read lightly or which are to be digested. This aphoristic style in Bacon’s writing leaves the reader to his own interpretations. Bacon uses the aphoristic style to enable the reader's active participation allowing him to interpret and add to the meaning of his statements. This is opposed to the magisterial style where the entire information is provided making the reader lazy and passive.

Another important feature of Bacon’s essays is his impersonality. Bacon’s personal choices and opinions are not reflected through his writings. His impersonality is aided by his aphoristic style. By providing the reader with statements of truth Bacon saves himself from revealing his true personality. He rarely exemplifies his arguments and when he does the examples are usually drawn from history, such as the example of Julius Caesar and Brutus in the essay “Of Friendship”, which does not require his personal opinion. Bacon’s personality is detached from his essays.

Bacon’s essays also display a few other features. His essays are usually short, sometimes shorter than what the conventional definition of essay suggests. They often lack coherence. This is mainly because most of his essays are not divided into paragraphs and it is difficult for the reader to grasp a sudden change from one idea to another. His essays are observational rather than reflective. His style is very formal.

The various features of Bacon’s essays therefore make it difficult to place his writings under the genre of essay. But these features also do not suggest otherwise. Thus Bacon’s works are classified as essays. In conclusion it can be said that the essays of Francis Bacon possess distinctive features which have served to preserve his works through the ages. His essays are studied at present not for their content but for their style.

Mimetic Tradition in Classical Western Literary Criticism

The word 'mimesis' means to imitate. As a critical and philosophical term mimesis may carry several meanings such as representation, imitation, and mimicry, the act of resembling, the act of expression and the presentation of the self. Mimesis as criteria of literary criticism refers to interpreting a text in relation to a particular literary or cultural model. The tradition of mimetic criticism begins with Plato.

In ancient Greece the idea of mimesis referred to a reflection of the ideal world in the physical. Plato wrote about the concept of mimesis in his famous work The Republic where he said that the physical world is merely a reflection or imitation of an ‘ideal’ world. Plato divides the world into – the world of ideals and the world of sense-perception. Reality exists in the form of ideals and is perceived through the senses in the world of appearances. Plato exemplifies this concept with the help of three beds- one the ideal of a ‘bed’; second, the bed made by a carpenter and third the bed painted by the artist. The artist imitates the carpenter who in turn imitates the ideal world. Thus the painting is an imitation of an imitation. The work of an artist is twice removed from reality. Plato likens poets to painters and thus calls them liars.  Plato calls poetry the art of divine madness. The artists and orators, according to Plato, persuade their audience by rhetoric and not by speaking the truth.

Plato’s idea is further discussed by his disciple Aristotle in his work Poetics which is a defence of poetry against Plato’s accusations. Aristotle mentions in Poetics that epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, pipe-playing and lyre-playing are all different modes of imitation. However they differ from each other in three ways- first, the means of imitation, second the object to be imitated and third, the manner of imitation. A poet imitates actions which are performed by either a good person or a bad person i.e. a poet imitates virtues and vices, the primary distinction of the diversity of human temperaments. The persons that a poet imitates must be either of a higher level than the common people, or of a lower level or of the same level. If the means and object for imitation are the same the manner of imitation may differ in three ways. First, one may switch between narration and assuming character. Secondly, one may remain the same without any change or thirdly, the whole story may be represented dramatically as if the imitator is actually performing those actions.

 Aristotle regards humans as imitative beings. Humans are the most imitative creatures in the world which is an advantage they enjoy over other beings. The process of learning in human life begins with imitation. Moreover imitation is not only a part of human nature but they also find delight in works of imitation. Aristotle says that although some objects are painful to see in real life a realistic representation of those objects in the form of art provides pleasure. The natural tendency of imitation in humans along with the sense of melody and rhythm results in the creation of poetry.

The mimesis theory is reflected in Aristotle’s famous definition of tragedy where he states that tragedy is the ‘imitation of an action’ that is serious, has a magnitude and is complete in it. It is written in a pleasurable language and the action progresses in a dramatic form involving incidents which arouse the emotions of pity and fear in the audience and ultimately leads to a catharsis of those emotions. Aristotle differentiates a comedy from a tragedy by saying that comedy is the imitation of people worse than the average while a tragedy is the imitation of persons above the ordinary. According to Aristotle a poet’s function is to describe what may have happened or should have happened, unlike a historian whose function is to describe what has already happened. In this manner poetry is a form of creation and thus the poet is a creator and not a liar as said by Plato.

Philip Sidney in his essay An Apology for Poetry reiterates the classical definition and says that poetry is the art of imitation, like a representation or a counterfeit. It is a speaking picture whose aim is to teach and delight. Sidney classifies poetry into three types. First is religious poetry that imitates the incredible excellence of God. Secondly poetry that deals with philosophical matters either moral or astronomical. The third type of poetry according to Sidney is that which imitates for the sole purpose of teaching and delighting by telling not what has been or shall be but which may be or should be. Thus he echoes Aristotle’s view on a poet’s function carrying forward the mimetic tradition in classical western literary criticism. Sidney also adds that a poet is one who is capable of feigning images of virtue and vices in a didactic yet entertaining manner.

The mimetic tradition continues in Samuel Johnson’s Preface to Shakespeare, the famous critique of the works of William Shakespeare. Johnson measures Shakespeare’s genius in his ability to imitate nature. Johnson regards Shakespeare as the poet of nature who holds up a faithful mirror of life and its manners to his readers. The plays of Shakespeare portray the true nature of human beings and the actions of his characters can scarcely be called fictional.  Shakespeare’s characters are never extraordinary; they speak and act under the influence of common human passions. Johnson says that Shakespeare does not have any heroes. His characters are merely men who act and speak in the same manner as the reader himself would act or speak if he faced a similar situation. His characters are ordinary and universal. The audience can identify themselves with the characters. According to Johnson, “imitations produce pleasure or pain, not because they are mistaken for realities, but because they bring realities to mind”. Shakespeare’s tragedies are impactful because they imitate situations which may not be real but which are capable of bringing realities to the mind. According to Johnson the greatest praise of Shakespeare is that his drama is a mirror of life.

In conclusion it can be said that the concept of mimesis in western literary criticism evolved through the works of various critics. The tradition began with Plato who regarded the physical world as an imitation of the ‘ideal’ and thus regarded all imitations of the physical world as false. Aristotle defended this stance by justifying that the poet speculates events which is a creative process in itself and hence proved that they are not liars. The tradition continued down the ages up to the eighteenth century as seen in the works of critics such as Sidney and Johnson. Mimesis is considered as an important concept in the world of literary criticism even today. 

The Lake Isle of Innisfree | W.B. Yeats | Summary and Analysis

The Lake Isle of Innisfree is a poem by W.B. Yeats. The poem depicts the longing of the poet to escape his life in the city and find peace and solace in the lap of nature. The poet wants to go to Innisfree which is an uninhibited island in Ireland where the poet spent his childhood. He wants to build a small cabin for himself in the island and grow beans and raise honeybees. He wants a quiet and tranquil life which is contrary to the busy life of the cities. The poem is set in the countryside. The poet makes use of imagery to express his feelings and emotions. The images in the poem are both visual and auditory.

In the first stanza, the poet states his resolution that he would go to Innisfree and lead a solitary life in the island. He would make a small cabin for himself and plant beans and raise honeybees. He wants an escape from the busy life in the city. In the second stanza, the poet describes the natural beauty of Innisfree. He describes the morning mist or fog to be a veil where peace would come dropping like dew drops. The veil of the morning also presents an image of the unspoiled beauty of a bride. The poet describes the midnights of Innisfree as glimmering, which implies a golden glowing starlit sky. The noon is described by the poet to have a purple glow. These images present a contrast of colours which aptly describe the unspoiled natural beauty of Innisfree. In the third stanza the poet repeats his resolution to go to Innisfree. He seems to have woken up from a daydream and suddenly realizes the reality of his surroundings. The poet says that he can hear the sounds of the lapping waters of the lake against the shore of Innisfree even while standing on the grey pavements of the city. The memories of the free life that he lived in Ireland are deeply ingrained in his heart. Therefore the poet desires to leave behind the restrictive life of the city and go back to Innisfree and life his life in peace.

The themes that we come across in the poem include a longing for an ideal pastoral island, escape from city life, trying to go back to the past and the idea of individuality and independence. The rhyme scheme of the poem is abab. The poet also makes use of alliteration and assonance in the poem. The tone of the poem is serene, thoughtful and reflective. The poem depicts the balance and harmony of nature.

The Chimney Sweeper | Songs of experience | Summary and Analysis

This poem titled 'The Chimney Sweeper' appears in the collection Songs of Experience by William Blake and is often read as a counterpart of 'The Chimney Sweeper' in Songs of Innocence. Through this poem Blake criticizes the institutions of the society which exploit small children. The tone of the poem is sarcastic. The poem presents the picture of a ‘little black thing’ standing in the midst of snow. This immediately brings to mind the contrast presented by a dirty black thing in the pristine snow. But this ‘little black thing’ is in fact a child, a chimney sweeper who is covered in snow. Blake refers to the child as a ‘thing’ to show the society’s indifference towards these little children. The child is crying ‘weep’ ‘weep’. This is a reference to the cry of chimney sweepers who are often so young that they pronounce ‘weep’ instead of ‘sweep’. Blake days that the child is crying ‘weep’ ‘weep’ in ‘notes of woe’ which means that the child is actually in pain and therefore weeping. Then the voice of a concerned adult asks the child where his parents were. The child replies that they had gone to the church to pray.

The child then speaks about the miseries of his life. He says that since he was happy and played on the heath and ‘smiled amongst the winter’s snow’, his parents sold him as a chimney sweeper. Winter in England is very harsh and is often referred to as a symbol of suffering and death. Blake says that the child smiled even in the winter’s snow which shows the capacity of children to remain happy irrespective of the circumstances. But it does not mean that they cannot feel pain and this is what adults fail to see. So the child says that his parents clothed him in the ‘clothes of death’. This refers to his dress which is black with soot and also to the hazardous occupation of the chimney sweepers which leads to the death of many children. The child says that they taught him to sing the ‘notes of woe’ again referring to the cry of the chimney sweepers which for the child is equivalent to weeping.

Now the child says that since he is happy and sings and dances his parents the adults think that they have done no injury to him. This again goes back to the child’s capacity to remain happy at all circumstances. Although he is now a chimney sweeper and is suffering he does not express it outwardly and all the adults see is a happy child singing and dancing. Blake here points out the unfeeling attitude of the adults towards children and their inability to understand the psychology of a small child. Finally the child says that his parents have gone to the church to ‘praise God and His Priest and King’ who make a heaven out of the misery of the children. In the last two lines Blake attacks the institutions of the Church and the Monarchy. These institutions of society exploit innocent children and enjoy the benefits of their toil. But in turn the children are left uncared for and they live a life of misery.  

The Chimney Sweeper | Songs of Innocence | Summary and Analysis

The poem “The Chimney Sweeper” by William Blake appears in his collection of poems titled Songs of Innocence. It is written in the form of a story which is narrated by a small child who works as a chimney sweeper. During Blake’s time the English society employed little, almost infant children as chimney sweepers. Their small size made them the perfect tools to go down the narrow chimneys and clean them while the children themselves remained covered in black soot. Many of these children also faced premature death owing to injuries and constant inhalation of the chimney fumes. They were not cared for and lived in hunger and poverty. The poem depicts the innocence of a small child who can still dream about angels in spite of a cruel society which imposes a life of misery upon him.

The narrator begins by telling the story of his own life. His mother died when he was very young and his father sold him as a chimney sweeper when he could barely utter the word ‘sweep’ and cried ‘weep’ ‘weep’ instead. This refers to the cry of chimney sweepers who go down the street crying ‘sweep’ ‘sweep’, offering their services. But they are often so young that they can only pronounce the word as ‘weep’ ‘weep’. Ironically, the word ‘weep’ here also indicates that the child is actually crying out of pain and hunger. The child says that he sweeps chimneys and goes to bed covered in soot.

The child goes on and narrates the story of Tom Dacre, a young boy who is new to the world of chimney sweepers. His curly white hair is compared to the fleece of a lamb reinforcing the idea of innocence as the motifs of a lamb and a child often represent. He cried when his head was shaved. But the narrator, who already has some experience, comforts his new comrade saying that if he does not have any hair on his head the soot cannot spoil his white hair. This again indicates a child’s innocent logic that he uses to look at misery with a positive attitude.

Then the narrator says that on that very night Tom Dacre had a nightmare. He saw thousands of chimney sweepers along with his fellows- Dick, Joe, Ned and Jack, locked in black coffins. This nightmare may be interpreted as a result of a claustrophobic experience that Tom Dacre may have faced the very first time he went down a chimney. A black coffin also symbolizes death. This again shows the near death experience that the children undergo while they sweep the chimneys.

However, a child’s imaginative capacity is powerful enough to surpass a nightmare and thus Tom Dacre dreams that an angel comes with a key and liberates them from their coffins. They find themselves upon a green plain and run through it down to the river where they wash off their soot and emerge clean and naked, leaving behind their bags and tools. Nakedness is again a symbol of an innocent and pure state of being. Then the children rise upon the clouds and play with the wind, suggesting an image where the children themselves can be viewed as angels. Then the angel tells Tom that if he is a good boy God will always remain by his side.

Thus Tom Dacre and the other children wake up to a dark and cold morning and collect their bags and brushes to go to work. This brings back the image of the harsh reality that the children live in. But Tom feels happy and warm as he now believes that if he does his duty he need not fear harm. The last line brings the tale to a conclusion by providing a moral as is common in children’s stories. But Blake also uses this line to criticize the hypocrisy if the society. It teaches poor and miserable children to do their duty while it reaps the benefit of their labour and then ignores their plight.  

A Study of Poetry | Matthew Arnold | Summary and Analysis

'A Study of Poetry' is a critical essay by Matthew Arnold. In this essay Arnold criticizes the art of poetry as well as the art of criticism. Arnold believes that the art of poetry is capable of high destinies. It is the art in which the idea itself is the fact. He says that we should understand the worth of poetry as it is poetry that shows us a mirror of life. Science, according to Arnold, is incomplete without poetry, and, religion and philosophy will give way to poetry. Arnold terms poetry as a criticism of life thereby refuting the accusation of Plato and says that as time goes on man will continue to find comfort and solace in poetry.

Arnold says that when one reads poetry he tends to estimate whether it is of the best form or not. It happens in three ways- the real estimate, the historic estimate, and the personal estimate. The real estimate is an unbiased viewpoint that takes into account both the historical context and the creative faculty to judge the worth of poetry. But the real estimate is often surpassed by the historic and personal estimate. The historic estimate places the historical context above the value of the art itself. The personal estimate on the other hand depends on the personal taste, the likes and dislikes of the reader which affects his judgment of poetry. Arnold says that both these estimates tend to be fallacious.

The historic and personal estimate often overshadows the real estimate. But Arnold also says that it is natural. The study of the historical background of poetry and its development often leads to the critic skipping over the shortcomings because of its historical significance. Historic estimate raises poetry to a high pedestal and thus hinders one from noticing its weaknesses. It is the historic estimate that leads to the creation of classics and raises the poet to a nearly God like standard. Arnold says that if a poet is truly a classic his poetry will give the reader real pleasure and enable him to compare and contrast other poetry which are not of the same high standard. This according to Arnold is the real estimate of poetry. Thus Arnold appeals to his readers to read classics with an open eye and not be blind to its faults. This will enable one to rate poetry with its proper value.

Arnold here speaks about the idea of imitation. He says that whatever one reads or knows keeps on coming back to him. Thus if a poet wants to reach the high standards of the classics he might consciously or unconsciously imitate them. This is also true for critics who tend to revert to the historic and personal estimate instead of an unbiased real estimate. The historic estimate affects the study of ancient poets while the personal estimate affects the study of modern or contemporary poets.

Arnold proposes the ‘touchstone’ method of analyzing poetry in order to determine whether it is of a high standard or not. He borrows this method from Longinus who said in his idea of the sublime that if a certain example of sublimity can please anyone regardless of habits, tastes or age and can please at all times then it can be considered as a true example of the sublime. This method was first suggested in England by Addison who said that he would have a man read classical works which have stood the test of time and place and also those modern works which find high praise among contemporaries. If the man fails to find any delight in them then he would conclude that it is not the author who lacks quality but the reader who is incapable of discovering them. Arnold applies the touchstone method by taking examples from the time tested classics and comparing them with other poetry to determine whether they possess the high poetic standard of the classics. He says that the poems need not resemble or possess any similarity to the touchstones. Once the critic has lodged the touchstones in his mind in order to detect the possession of high poetic quality he will have the tact of finding it in other poetry that he compares to the touchstones. Arnold quotes Homer, Dante, Shakespeare and Milton in an attempt to exemplify touchstone poetry. He says that the examples he has quoted are very dissimilar to one another but they all possess a high poetic quality. He says that a critic need not labour in vain trying to explain the greatness of poetry. He can do so by merely pointing at some specimens of the highest poetic quality. Arnold says that the high quality of poetry lies in its matter and its manner. He then goes by Aristotle’s observation and says that the best form of poetry possesses high truth and seriousness that makes up its subject matter along with superior diction that marks its manner. However, Arnold mentions that the true force of this method lies in its application. He therefore urges critics to apply the touchstone method to analyse and rate poetry.

Arnold then speaks about French poetry which had a tremendous influence on the poetry of England. He differentiates between the poetry of northern France and the poetry of southern France. The poetry of southern France influenced Italian literature. But it is the poetry of northern France that was dominant in Europe in the twelfth and thirteenth century. This poetry came to England with the Anglo- Normans and had a tremendous impact on English poetry. It was the romance- poems of France that was popular during that time. But Arnold says that it did not have any special characteristics and lacked the high truth, seriousness and diction of classic poetry and remain significant only from the historical point of view.

Next Arnold speaks about Chaucer who was much influenced by French and Italian poetry. Arnold says that Chaucer’s poetic importance is a result of the real estimate and not the historic estimate. The superiority of Chaucer’s verse lies both in his subject matter and his style. He writes about human life and nature as he sees it. Arnold speaks highly of Chaucer’s diction and calls it ‘liquid diction’ to emphasise the fluidity in the manner of Chaucer’s writing which he considers to be an irresistible virtue. Arnold however says that Chaucer is not a classic. He compares Chaucer to Dante and points out that Chaucer lacks the high seriousness of the classics thereby depriving him of the high honour.

Next Arnold mentions Milton and Shakespeare and credits them as classics and moves on to speak about Dryden and Pope. According to the historic estimate Dryden and Pope are no doubt great poets of the eighteenth century. Arnold observes that Dryden and Pope were better prose writers than poets. The restoration period faced the necessity of a fit prose with proper imaginative quality and this is what Dryden and Pope provided. Arnold therefore concludes that they are classics not of poetry but of prose.

After Dryden and Pope Arnold speaks about Gray. Gray did not write much but what he wrote has high poetic value. Arnold therefore considers Gray to be a classic.

Arnold now speaks about Robert Burns in the late eighteenth century and says that this is the period from which the personal estimate begins to affect the real estimate. Burns, according to Arnold, is a better poet in Scottish than in English. Like Chaucer Arnold does not consider Burns to be a classic. He says that Burns too lacks the high seriousness desired of poetry. He compares Burns to Chaucer and finds that Burns’ manner of presentation is deeper than that of Chaucer. According to the real estimate Burns lacks the high seriousness of the classics but his poetry nevertheless has truthful substance and style.

Then Arnold moves on to speak about Byron, Shelley and Wordsworth but does not pass any judgement on their poetry. Arnold believes that his estimate of these poets will be influenced by his personal passion as they are closer to his age than the classics and also because their writings are of a more personal nature. Finally Arnold speaks about the self-preservation of the classics. Any amount of good literature will not be able to surpass the supremacy of the classics as they have already stood the test of time and people will continue to enjoy them for the ages to come. Arnold says that this is the result of the self preserving nature of humanity. Human nature will remain the same throughout the ages and those parts of the classics dealing with the subject will remain relevant at all times thus preserving themselves from being lost in time.

Hello world! My name is Bhaswati. I am a third year undergraduate student with major in English literature. Over the past two years I have realized that if you do not make your notes well in advance there is no way you could study four novels, or three plays, or five essays or about ten poems the night before your exams. And being the lazy person that I am making notes in advance never happens and I always end up studying bits and pieces of stuff just enough to sit for an exam. The result: I am learning way less than I ought to. So whenever a teacher asks a question in class, I develop a sudden interest in my nails or the scribbles on the desk while I wait for somebody else to answer the question and save the rest of the ignorant creatures from doom.

I believe now is the time for change. Therefore I have started this blog in an attempt to document all that I study from now onwards along with some of the stuff I already have. I hope it will make studying a bit more fun for me and in the process I might also end up helping other students like me. After all studying literature is not as easy as people think it is.  

Update - I graduated !!! Now I am a post-graduate student.