Of Truth | Francis Bacon | Summary

Bacon begins this essay by quoting Pilate who questions what is truth. Bacon says that truth is a belief that affixes the mind and hinders free will in thinking and acting. The Greek philosophers who questioned the possibilities of human knowledge are no longer there, but there are still some people who question the same. Men undergo various difficulties to learn the truth but once he does so it imposes a restriction on his thought and he wants to revert to lies. Bacon says that the love is a corrupt yet natural tendency in human beings. Like the Greek philosopher Lucian, Bacon wonders what makes a man love lies for it does not give delight as it does in poetry or does not allow profit as in business.

Truth is like daylight but it throws only as much light on the fallacies of the world as a candle light. Truth is like a pearl which shows best in daylight but it cannot be like a diamond or carbuncle that can shine in the dark. That means truth is unable to show itself in the face of a lie just as a pearl cannot be seen in the dark.

A mixture of lie with truth adds pleasure. Here Bacon speaks about imagination. If a man hangs on to the absolute truth and does not allow fancy, hopes or even doubt, he will be a melancholy person. Poetry has often been accused of being false as it is filled with imagination. But it is only a shadow of a lie, a reflection of reality which in itself is a reflection of the ideal. But it is not the lie that passes over the mind but the lie that deeply sinks into the mind that hurts.

In spite of man’s efforts and judgements it is only truth that can truly define itself. The quest for truth, the love of truth and the belief in truth is the only free will of human nature. Bacon compares truth to light and brings in the biblical example of the god’s creation of light. On the first day God created light and on the sixth day he created man whom he gifted the “light of reason”. Bacon quotes a poet who said “no pleasure is comparable to the standing upon the vantage ground of Truth, and to see the errors and wanderings ….in the vale below.” Bacon adds that such a man would looks upon the “errors and wanderings” with pity and not with pride. If a man’s mind can “move in charity, rest in providence, and turn upon the poles of truth” he will certainly find heaven on earth.

Truth is of utmost importance in civil life and in business. A bit of lie mixed with the truth is like making an alloy of copper and gold or silver. It makes it easier to work with these metals but at the same time makes it impure. Bacon compares falsehood to a snake crawling on its belly rather than walking on its feet. There is no activity more shameful than being false and treacherous. In this context Bacon quotes Montaigne who said that a liar is a man who is brave towards God and a coward towards men. Bacon emphasizes on the wickedness of falsehood and treachery by saying that these are the qualities that will be the cause of calling upon the judgement of God upon mankind.

Of Marriage and Single Life | Francis Bacon | Summary

In this essay Bacon speaks about the differences that mark a married man from a single one and the advantages and disadvantages of a married or single life. A man who is married and has wife and children is unable to risk his money for noble purposes. They are obstacles to any endeavour either good or bad. The best works which are the best for the public have often come from unmarried men. These are the men who have “married” the public, that is, devoted their lives entirely to a public cause. Men who have children care a great deal about the future and make various important pledges and promises regarding the future. However there are also some single men who think only about themselves and they too account for the future. Some people consider wives and children as items of expense. Some foolish and greedy men take pride in having no children. They believe that they will remain richer if they do not have any children because they might have heard people say that so and so is a great, rich man but he has the burden of children suggesting that children are a hindrance on the growth of fortunes. However, most men choose to remain single for the sake of liberty that a single life allows. These people think of marriage as imprisonment.

Bacon enlists the positive and negative qualities of a single man. Unmarried men make the best friends, the best masters, and the best servants. But they do not make the best citizens as they have so great a sense of freedom that they tend to run away from responsibilities. The single life is better suited for a clergyman because he can be more charitable as he does not have any needs to satisfy. For judges and magistrates the situation is indifferent because if they are corrupt it makes them servants who are worse than wives. For soldier it is often an emotional support to think of wives and children before going into battle. That is why Bacon says that the dislike of marriage among the Turks makes the vulgar soldiers even more so. Single men are often more charitable because they have less expenses. But at the same time they also tend to be cruel and hard hearted as they do not have a wife or children to invoke the tenderness within them.

A grave man with traditional beliefs is often a loving husband. Women are often proud of their chastity and a wife will always remain chaste and obedient if she thinks that her husband is wise and not jealous. For a young man a wife serves the purpose of a mistress, in the middle age she is a companion and to the old man she is a nurse. Therefore a man can reasonably decide when he would like to get married. Bacon here quotes a philosopher and mathematician who answered the question of when a man should marry and said – “a young man not yet, an elder man not at all”.

Bacon observes that bad husbands often have good wives. He says that this may be because it makes the husband’s kindness more valuable or because the wife takes pride in her patience in dealing with him. Bacon however says that given the chance these bad husbands would make sure to correct their own mistake. 

Of Studies | Francis Bacon | Summary

In this essay Bacon describes the importance of studies in human life. Bacon begins the essay by enlisting three purposes of studies – “to delight, for ornament and for ability.” Studies delight most when one is secluded and reposed. Knowledge acquired through studies serve as ornament in a conversation. A well read man will have a good vocabulary and greater knowledge which will increase the worth of a conversation. Studies improve one’s judgmental and authoritative abilities. Ordinary men can no doubt go about their daily business without difficulty but a learned man will do so with higher efficiency. Bacon however says that studying too much is a sign of laziness and using too many ornaments while conversing makes one look pretentious. To make judgments only on the basis of rules is the eccentricity of a scholar.

Studies make a man perfect. Studying is not an inborn talent; it is acquired. The natural abilities of man are to be enhanced by studies just like the growth of plants is enhanced by trimming. Studies provide both direction and experience. Practical men often condemn studies but wise men use it. Studies teach man to learn from observation. One must not use knowledge as a means of contradiction or confutation. Studies must also not be used to believe or to take for granted, or to talk and discourse but “to weigh and consider”.

Then Bacon speaks about the different ways in which different books are to be read. He says – “Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested.” This means some books are to be perused lightly, that is, tasted while some other books are to be understood and enjoyed, that is, swallowed. On the other hand certain books are to be digested, that it, to fully extract their meaning and implemented in one’s life. Therefore some books are to be read only in parts, others are to be read with less curiosity, and some books are to be read with attention and diligence. Bacon however also says that sometimes it may be enough to read extracts or reviews of books made by others instead of reading the whole book by oneself. But according to Bacon this is to be done only in case of books of less importance. He considers these “distilled books” to distilled waters which he calls “flashy things”.

Reading makes a man complete, conversation makes a man quick and witty, and writing improves the memory. If a man writes less he will lack a good memory, if he speaks little he will lack wit and presence of mind, and if he reads less he will not have much knowledge.

A study of history makes a man wise while a study of poetry makes him witty. Mathematics makes a man exact and precise and natural philosophy increases the depth of the mind. Morals make a man grave whereas a study of logic and rhetoric makes him more comprehensive. Studies pass into character. A man’s character is influenced and defined by the type of books he reads.

There is no disease of the mind that cannot be cured by proper study. Bowling is good for the bladder and the kidneys, shooting for the lungs and breast, walking for the stomach and riding is good for the head. Similarly mathematics is the remedy for a wandering mind because if a man’s mind wanders while solving a problem he will have to begin again. If a man is unable to make distinctions he must study schoolmen and if he is not quick in passing through matters he should study the law. Thus Bacon concludes the essay by establishing that for every deficit of the mind a remedy is to be found in studies.

Why The Novel Matters| D.H. Lawrence | Summary and Analysis

D. H. Lawrence’s critical essay ‘Why the novel matters’ was published in the collection titled Phoenix in the year 1936. In this essay Lawrence speaks about the importance of the novel and tries to establish the superiority of the novelist above other professions.

In an attempt to illustrate the importance of the novel Lawrence explains the importance of life and the living man. He says that the whole living man, the man alive, is more important than his thoughts, ideas, his mind, or his stomach or liver or kidney or any other parts of his body. Lawrence says that this is what scientists and philosophers fail to understand. According to Lawrence a novel shows life and its characters are nothing but man alive. The novelist understands the importance of life and the man alive. Therefore the novelist is better than the scientist or the philosopher.

Lawrence begins the essay by commenting upon the saying ‘a sound mind in a sound body’. He calls it a funny superstition that people think of themselves as a body with a soul in it. He questions why one thinks of one’s hand as something subordinate to the mind that operates it. The hand has a life of its own. It has knowledge and can think and act for itself. The hand is as much a part of the living man as the mind. The pen held by the hand however is not alive. A man alive extends only to his fingertips. Lawrence says that whatever in a man is alive constitutes the man alive. The hand, skin, freckles, blood and bones are very much alive and part of the man alive. The living body therefore must not be compared to inanimate objects like tin cans or clay vessels.

Lawrence in this essay tries to explain why the novelist is better than the philosopher or the scientist and in order to do so he explains the importance of the man alive. According to Lawrence the novelist possesses an intricate understanding of the man alive more fully than a parson, a philosopher, or a scientist. The parson speaks about souls in heaven and the afterlife. But for the novelist heaven is in the palm of his hand and the tip of his nose which are alive. The novelist is not concerned about life after death. He is wholly concerned about life at present and with the man alive. The philosopher speaks about infinite knowledge possessed by the pure spirit.  But for the novelist there is no knowledge beyond what the living body can perceive. For philosophers nothing but thoughts is important. These thoughts Lawrence says are nothing but ‘tremulations on the ether’. They are not alive. They are like radio signals floating in the air which are meaningless until they reach the receiver – a radio device that decodes the signals into a meaningful message. Similarly when thoughts are received by a man alive they become meaningful and can alter the man’s life. But the thoughts nevertheless are not alive. It is only because the man alive receives them that they become alive. Only a man alive can be stimulated by thoughts. Thus the living body is more important than the message conveyed by thoughts.

According to Lawrence nothing is more important than life. Living things are more valuable than dead objects. A living dog is better than a dead lion but a living lion is better than a living dog. Lawrence says that scientists and philosophers find it difficult to accept the value of the living. For the philosopher nothing but thoughts matter. For the scientist a living man is of no use. He only wants a dead man whom he dissects and observes under the microscope. For a scientist a man is a heart, a liver, a kidney, a gland or a tissue. But for the novelist the only thing that matters is a whole living man. Lawrence refuses to believe that he is a body or a soul or a brain or a nervous system. He considers himself to be a complete whole made up of all these parts, a whole that is greater and more significant than the individual parts. And for this reason he is a novelist and he considers himself superior to the saint, the scientist or the philosopher.   

Having established the importance of the man alive and the novelist Lawrence proceeds to explain the significance of the novel. Lawrence calls the novel a book of life. According to him books are like thoughts - nothing but ‘tremulations on the ether’. They are meaningful only when a man alive receives them. But he says that the tremulations of a novel are more powerful than any other book and it can make a whole man alive tremble. This means that the novel has the capacity to influence a man more effectively than any other book.  For example the ideals of Plato makes the ideal being in a man tremble. Similarly the sermons or the Ten Commandments affect only a part of a man alive. But a novel is capable of shaking the whole of a man alive. This is because a novel deals in nothing else but man alive. In this regard Lawrence calls the Bible a ‘great confused novel’.  All its characters – Adam, Eve, Sarai, Abraham, Isaac – including God are nothing but man alive. For Lawrence, the Bible, Homer and Shakespeare are all great novels because they communicate to the reader. Their wholeness affects the whole of man alive. They do not stimulate growth in a particular direction but shake the whole man alive into new life.

According to Lawrence the strength and appeal of a novel lies in the dynamic nature of its characters which reflects the importance of constant change in the life of a man alive. Nothing is constant and if something is forced to remain constant it loses its value and power along with the passing of time. There are no absolutes. There is only a constant flow and change and even change is not absolute. A man today is different from what he was yesterday and tomorrow he will be different from what he is today. A man loves a woman because of the constant change in her. It is the change that startles and defies and keeps a man and woman in love with each other. Loving an unchanging person is like loving an inanimate object like a pepper pot. But even amidst change one needs to maintain one’s integrity. However Lawrence says that putting a finger on one individual trait makes one as fixed as a lamp post. It seems as if a man has made up an idea about himself and is trying to trim himself down to fit into it. Lawrence says that one can learn about the importance of change from a novel. In a novel the characters do nothing but live. But if they begin to act according to a fixed pattern – always remaining good or bad – the novel loses its life force. Similarly a man in his life must live and not try to follow a pattern or else he becomes a dead man in life. Lawrence however says that it is difficult to define what is living. Different men have different ideas about what they mean by living in life. Some go to seek God while others seek money, wine, and women, yet others seek votes and political reforms. In this Lawrence says that the novel is a guide which helps to differentiate between a man alive and a man who is dead in life. A man may eat his dinner like a man alive or merely chew his dinner as a dead man in life. A man alive shoots his enemy but a dead man in life throws bombs at people who are neither his friends nor foes.

Finally Lawrence says that the most important thing is to be a whole man alive and the novel provides guidance in this matter. A novel helps a man to see when a man is alive and when he is dead in life. The novel helps to develop an instinct for life. This is because the novel does not advocate a right path or a wrong path. The concept of right and wrong vary according to circumstances. A novel portrays this unpredictable and varying nature of life making the reader realize that life itself is the reason for living. The end result of the novel is the whole man alive.  Thus Lawrence asserts that the novel is a book that can touch the life of a whole man alive and that is why the novel matters.   

Orientation of Critical Theories | M.H. Abrams | Summary and Analysis

The essay ‘Orientation of Critical Theories’ is the first chapter of the book The Mirror and the Lamp by M.H. Abrams. In the book Abrams speaks about the two ways in which literature or literary theories try to interpret the human mind – first the mind as a mirror that reflects the external objects and second as a lamp that throws light at the objects it sees. The first approach is related to the mimetic theories of criticism and the second approach is related to the romantic ideal of the power of the mind to interpret what it sees. In this essay Abrams speaks about how different critical theories tend to display an orientation towards a particular element of a work of art by dividing these theories based upon their orientations.

This essay is divided by Abrams into five parts. The first part deals with the coordinates of art criticism. Abrams says that any critical theory consists of four elements with the help of which they comprehend art. The first element is the work of art and the second element is the artist. The third element is the source of the work, the objects or situations that the work describes or reflects or has some relation to. This is commonly referred to as ‘nature’ but Abrams uses the more inclusive term ‘universe’. The fourth element is the audience. Abrams arranges these four elements in a triangular diagram with the work of art at the centre and the universe, audience and the artist as the three coordinates. He says that any critical theory while dealing with all the four elements shows a significant orientation towards only one of these elements and judges the value of the work by focusing on one element as its principal criteria. Thus all critical theories can be divided into four broad categories depending upon their orientation towards the elements. The first category deals with the importance of the universe in the work of art. The second category deals with the influence of the work on its audience. The third orients towards the artist’s role in the process of creation of the work of art and the fourth category deals with the work as a singular entity. Abrams however says that the four elements vary according to the theories in which they appear.

The second part of the essay deals with mimetic theories. The critical theories that deal with mimesis are oriented towards the universe and its role in the work of art. This theory first appeared in Plato’s Republic. Plato’s theory of mimesis operates upon three categories – the ideal world, the physical world and the world of art. This theory holds that the physical world is an imitation of the Ideal world and art is an imitation of the physical world. Thus art is twice removed from reality. This idea is famously explained by Socrates in the tenth book of the Republic where he says that there are three beds – one the idea of the bed, second a physical bed made by the carpenter who imitates the ideal bed and the third is the bed painted by the artist. The bed of the artist is twice removed from the idea of the bed. Thus according to this theory all works of judged on the basis of their relation to Ideas. Since ideas are considered true and beautiful the distance of art from ideas emphasizes its distance from beauty and truth.

Aristotle’s Poetics is the next great work of criticism with a mimetic orientation. Aristotle defines poetry as imitation. He also distinguishes between different kinds of imitation based on the objects imitated, the manner of imitation, and the medium of imitation. With the help of these distinctions Aristotle is able to separate poetry from other art forms and then make distinctions between different kinds of poetry - epic, drama, tragedy and comedy. Similarly while focusing on tragedy Aristotle breaks it into distinct individual parts - plot, characters, thought, temperament, diction etc. - which constitute the whole. Aristotle's criticism thus not only concerns about art as art but also poetry as poetry, and each kind of poetry according to its individual characteristics. Thus it is seen that Aristotle's criticism also displays a slight orientation towards the work itself. Another characteristic feature of Poetics is that it evaluates art or specifically tragedy based on its effect upon the audience. Thus Aristotle's criticism is very flexible and cannot be easily classified into one form of orientation. Nevertheless the mimetic orientation remains the most prominent in Aristotle's criticism. It is however important to note that Aristotle's criticism does not pay much attention to the role of the poet's individual feelings or emotions in the creation of a work of art. In Poetics the poet appears only to be advised about how plot is to be constructed and how diction is to be chosen. Plato on the other hand considers the poet from the political point of view.

In the third part of the essay Abrams speaks about the theories that display an orientation towards the relationship of the work of art to its audience. Abrams terms these theories as pragmatic theories. Pragmatic theories view the arts as a means of achieving an end and judges the value of art based upon its success in achieving that end. For pragmatic critics poetry is a means to achieve certain responses from its readers. Sir Philip Sidney's ‘An Apology for Poetry’ is the first text that displays pragmatic criticism. According to Sidney the purpose of poetry is to teach and delight. Sidney judges the value of poetry by analyzing its effect upon its audience. He says that poets are different from historians because they communicate what may be or should be rather than what has been or shall be. Sidney raises the poet above philosophers and historians because it is only the poet who is the most successful in communicating with his audience. This is because he combines the fact of the historian and the morals of the philosopher and disguises it in a form that not only teaches but also delights.

The classical theory of rhetoric can be viewed as the origin of pragmatic theories as rhetoric is universally regarded as a powerful instrument of persuasion among an audience. Horace discusses this theory in his work Ars Poetica. Horace advises poets to write poetry with the aim to blend usefulness with pleasure. To teach, to please and to move are the three aesthetic effects to be achieved upon a reader. Pragmatic criticism is mostly concerned with formulating rules, guidelines and methods for achieving the desired effects upon the audience. The rules are often derived from the qualities present in classical literary works which have stood the test of time or from an understanding of psychology. These rules help the artist in the process of creation and the critic in the process of evaluation. Most eighteenth century critics believed in the strength of these rules. Therefore describing and demonstrating rules and guidelines became a popular trend in the critical texts of that time. Richard Hurd's ' Dissertation of the idea of universal poetry ' is another critical text concerning pragmatic criticism. According to Hurd universal poetry is the art whose purpose is to provide the maximum amount of pleasure possible. In order to achieve this effect Hurd proposes three properties - figurative language, fiction and versification. According to Hurd, since the aim of poetry is to gratify the mind of the reader, knowledge of the mind is important while establishing these rules.

Johnson’s "Preface to Shakespeare" is one of the most important texts dealing with pragmatic criticism. Johnson combines the mimetic criteria of evaluation with the aesthetic effects upon the audience in order to judge works of art. Johnson says that Shakespeare holds before his readers a faithful mirror of manner and life. But Johnson also states that the aim of poetry is to instruct as well as please. Therefore the fact that Shakespeare has survived the test of time as a poet whose works are read for little reason other than pleasure is proof that a work of art that truly imitates nature will continue to please its audience for a long time. Shakespeare's ability to hold up a mirror of life to his audience is the major criteria upon which Johnson judges the effect of his works on the audience. Abrams notes that the pragmatic orientation has been the principal aesthetic attitude of western criticism beginning from Horace up to the eighteenth century. However with the development of science and increased knowledge of psychology particularly after the influence of the works of Hobbes and Locke in the seventeen century, the poet and his mental capacities gradually became the focal point of criticism and the orientation of critical theories turned from the audience to the artist.

The fourth part of the essay deals with the critical theories oriented towards the relation between the work and the artist which Abrams calls the expressive theory of art. The expressive orientation is found in the works of Longinus in his discussions of the sublime which according to Longinus has its sources in the poet's thoughts and emotions. However Abrams considers the year 1800 marked by the publication of Wordsworth's Preface to the Lyrical Ballads as the date when the expressive orientation begins to surface in English literary criticism. The expressive theories are a product of the Romantic Movement which emphasized on the power of the poet's mind. According to the expressive theory a work of art is an external manifestation of internal thoughts and feelings. The creative process is a result of the impulses of feeling combined with the poet's thoughts and perceptions which is the primary source of his works. The poet also converts aspects of the external world into poetry with the help of his mind. The poet’s mind therefore is the central point of attention in an expressive theory. The expressive theories evaluate poetry by trying to figure out whether the diction and figures of speech are a natural outcome of the poet's emotions or a deliberate effort. The expressive theory tries to answer the questions of sincerity and authenticity of poetry along with the poem's correspondence to the actual feeling and state of the poet's mind.  The work of art is no longer viewed as a mirror of the universe but as an insight to the poet's mind.

In the fifth and last part of the essay Abrams discusses the objective theories of criticism which isolate a work of art and evaluate it as an independent entity. The orientation of objective theories is thus towards the work of art alone irrespective of its source, artist or audience. One of the early attempts at objective criticism is seen in Aristotle's Poetics. Aristotle tries to analyze tragedy by considering it as an individual whole consisting of parts such as plot and characters. The objective orientation begins to emerge significantly in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Some critics tried to understand a poem as a 'heterocosm' i.e. a whole, independent world complete in itself. This aim of critics to consider a work or poem as a singular element without any external reference is termed by historians as ' art for art's sake'.

Thus it is seen that Abrams divides critical theories into four categories based upon their orientation - first the mimetic theories which orient towards the universe, secondly the pragmatic theories concerning the audience, thirdly the expressive theories focusing on the artist and finally the objective theories revolving around the work of art itself. However towards the end of the essay Abrams returns to Romanticism and its expressive theories. This is because it is during the Romantic period that the critical theories begin to view the mind of the poet not as a mirror of nature but as a 'lamp' which sheds light on its own creation. Abrams' return to Romanticism justifies the purpose of his book where he tries to explain the two ways in which a poet's mind is interpreted- as a mirror and as a lamp.

Thematic Comparison | Frost at Midnight and Dejection: An Ode | S.T. Coleridge

The poem “Frost at Midnight” was written in the year 1798 while “Dejection: an Ode” was written in 1802. These two poems by S.T. Coleridge portray two different states of the poet’s mind and reflect different experiences he had at different stages of his life.

“Frost at Midnight” speaks about Coleridge’s newfound passion in the natural world and his longing for his son Hartley to grow up in a natural environment. The poem presents a beautiful image of the poet’s mind in the form of a chain of thoughts. The poem is set in the midst of a frosty night when the poet is sitting silently in his cottage musing upon his relentless thoughts.

While the frost quietly spreads over the landscape the occasional screeching of the owl is the only sound disturbing the silence of the night. Every person living in the poet’s cottage is asleep, so are all the villagers. The hills, woods and the sea are silent and still. The poet is sitting beside his infant son Hartley sleeping peacefully in his cradle. The poet finds the silence and the stillness of the night nearly disturbing until he discovers the low blue flame flickering in the fireplace, the only other moving thing besides him. The poet finds companionship in the flame and slowly his thoughts begin to wander.

“Frost at Midnight was written when Coleridge described his life at Christ Hospital Grammar School to his friend Thomas Poole. The poet remembers his childhood and his days in school. He used to look outside through the bars of the window to gaze upon a ‘fluttering stranger’ a bird, a butterfly or any such winged creature which captures a child’s attention. Then with this fluttering stranger his mind would fly to the fair and he could hear the tolling of the church bell, a sound which reminds him of things to come. Coleridge’s remembrance of the past presents before the readers a beautiful image of a child’s mind which wanders away from his book and his daydreams gradually make him sleepy allowing him to continue with his reverie. The poet uses the word ‘swimming’ to show the child losing interest, attention and focus over his textbook such that it appears to be floating before his eyes. Coleridge remembers himself gazing out of the door hoping to see a familiar face- a townsman, an aunt or his sister to pass by.

The later part of the poem reflects Coleridge’s newfound interest in the beauty of nature which is a result of the detailed description of the Lake District presented to him by William Wordsworth. Coleridge addresses Hartley his son who is asleep and whose gentle breathing can be heard in the quiet of the night. Coleridge laments that he did not have the opportunity to grow up amidst nature.  He says that growing up amongst the dim cloisters of London the only beautiful things he saw are the sky and the stars. But he wants his son to grow up in the lap of nature. Coleridge views nature as a ‘great universal teacher’. He feels awed and inspired amidst nature. He wants his son to grow up in a nature environment away from the city and learn new and different things. This poem strongly emphasizes on Coleridge’s belief in nature as a teaching, healing and inspiring power.

“Dejection: An Ode” presents a contrast to Coleridge’s belief in nature’s power of inspiration as he shows in “Frost at Midnight”. This poem was written by Coleridge when he was suffering from a deep emotional depression and lack of imaginative and creative inspiration. The poem mainly deals with the theme of death of imagination and reflects Coleridge’s new philosophy about nature and its ability to inspire.

“Dejection: An Ode” describes the poet’s inability to find inspiration in nature. In this poem he addresses Sarah Hutchinson, the lady whom he loved but could not marry. Coleridge begins the poem by referring to the “Ballad of Sir Patrick Spence”. The poet of the ballad predicts a storm observing the new moon in the sky which has appeared along with the outline of the old moon visible around it. Coleridge says that he sees a similar moon in the sky and predicts a storm. But even as the rain starts pouring and the wind starts to blow, the poet fails to find it awe inspiring as he did before. Instead he only feels a dull pain in his heart. This shows that the poet can still derive knowledge from natural phenomena but he fails to find any kind of inspiration from them. The poet describes his inability to imagine as “grief without pang” which is like a “void”. The dull pain which he feels is constant and he cannot find any means of relieving himself of his emotions. He addresses his lady and says that no matter how much he looks into nature he fails to feel its beauty.

However Coleridge finally comes to a realization. He says – “I may not hope from outward forms to win/ The passions of life whose fountains are within”. These lines mark Coleridge’s new philosophy. He realizes that inspiration lies not in nature but in the human mind. If the mind is capable of seeing nature as an inspiration only then nature can inspire. It depends completely upon the imaginative capacity of the individual. Nature remains unchanging regardless of human life. It is an open book for the mind to interpret. For this reason nature has different effects on different people. It deeply affects certain minds while fails to touch others.

Coleridge finds that it is joy within his heart that allows him to find joy in nature. Nature returns to us only what we give to it. A sad heart will thus only gain sorrow from nature. Coleridge reminisces of the time when his heart was full of joy and it helped him to fight distress. But with growing depression his power of imagination has diminished. Coleridge refers to his negative thoughts as “viper” to emphasize the poisonous nature of their impact upon his life. The depression in his mind leads him to see violence and sorrow in nature. He feels that the wind blowing outside is carrying tragic sounds and groans of pain. He is unable to sleep. But he wishes that sleep may visit his lady with “wings of healing”. Although he cannot feel any joy within himself he wishes his lady all the joy in the world.

The two poems show certain similarities. They are both conversation poems – the first addressing his son Hartley and the second addressing his lady love Sarah Hutchinson. Coleridge’s attitude towards these people is also quite similar. He wishes his son to grow up amidst nature as he understands the importance of nature in a person’s life which he was deprived of. Similarly he wishes Sarah all the joy the world can provide while he himself could not find it.

The major difference between “Frost at Midnight” and “Dejection: An Ode” is Coleridge’s attitude towards nature. “Frost at Midnight” shows his complete faith upon nature as a teacher, healer and inspirer. But after facing a deep mental depression he realizes that it is the power of imagination that allows nature to heal and inspire. “Frost at Midnight” shows a reflection of the Romantic ideals about nature whereas “Dejection: An ode” shows a break from the tradition where Coleridge finds his new philosophy which differs completely from the established Romantic notions.  

The Writing Style of Francis Bacon

Francis Bacon is often regarded as the ‘Father of English essays’. But it is often argued whether his essays correspond to the conventional definition of the term. This is because Bacon’s essays have a certain distinctive characteristics which make us question the classification of their genre.

The most notable feature of Bacon’s essay is his aphoristic style. Aphorisms are straightforward statements that state a truth. Bacon in his essays writes in an aphoristic style making general statements. For example, in his essay “Of studies" Bacon states that studies have three purposes - to delight, for ornament and for ability. Again he says that there are different kinds of books - some are to be perused lightly, others to be digested and so on. Bacon merely states these facts almost as if they are established truths. He does not provide his personal opinion or give any examples as to which books are to be read lightly or which are to be digested. This aphoristic style in Bacon’s writing leaves the reader to his own interpretations. Bacon uses the aphoristic style to enable the reader's active participation allowing him to interpret and add to the meaning of his statements. This is opposed to the magisterial style where the entire information is provided making the reader lazy and passive.

Another important feature of Bacon’s essays is his impersonality. Bacon’s personal choices and opinions are not reflected through his writings. His impersonality is aided by his aphoristic style. By providing the reader with statements of truth Bacon saves himself from revealing his true personality. He rarely exemplifies his arguments and when he does the examples are usually drawn from history, such as the example of Julius Caesar and Brutus in the essay “Of Friendship”, which does not require his personal opinion. Bacon’s personality is detached from his essays.

Bacon’s essays also display a few other features. His essays are usually short, sometimes shorter than what the conventional definition of essay suggests. They often lack coherence. This is mainly because most of his essays are not divided into paragraphs and it is difficult for the reader to grasp a sudden change from one idea to another. His essays are observational rather than reflective. His style is very formal.

The various features of Bacon’s essays therefore make it difficult to place his writings under the genre of essay. But these features also do not suggest otherwise. Thus Bacon’s works are classified as essays. In conclusion it can be said that the essays of Francis Bacon possess distinctive features which have served to preserve his works through the ages. His essays are studied at present not for their content but for their style.